Ghana

Ghana is a West African nation bordering the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean, sharing land borders with Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso, and Togo. Covering 239,567 km², it features diverse landscapes including coastal savannas and rainforests. With a population of 35 million, Ghana is West Africa’s second-most populous country. Accra is the capital and largest city, with other notable cities including Tema, Kumasi, and Tamale.

Historically, kingdoms such as Bonoman in the south and Dagbon in the north emerged by the 11th century. Over time, various Akan kingdoms and the Asante Empire developed. From the 15th century, European powers traded and contested the region until British control prevailed in the 19th century. Modern Ghana took shape from four separate British colonies and achieved independence in 1957, becoming the first Sub-Saharan African colony to do so. Under President Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana played a significant role in decolonisation and the Pan-African movement.

Ghana is ethnically diverse, with the Akan as the largest group. The majority of Ghanaians are Christians, followed by Muslims and adherents of traditional faiths. It operates as a unitary constitutional democracy led by a president. Ghana is regarded for its political stability and ranks well in African governance indicators. Internationally, Ghana is active in organizations such as the African Union, ECOWAS, and the Commonwealth.

Etymology

The country’s name comes from Wagadu (the Ghana Empire), used by Arab traders during the trans-Saharan trade. “Ghana” derives from the title “Kaya Maghan,” meaning “ruler of gold.” The name symbolizes unity and heritage, chosen during the move to independence to inspire national identity and pride.

History

Medieval kingdoms

The earliest kingdoms in Ghana were Bonoman in the south and the Kingdom of Dagbon in the north, with Bonoman existing during the 11th century. By the 17th century, Akan states such as Bonoman, Adansi, Asante (in the Ashanti Region), Denkyira (Western North region), Mankessim Kingdom (Central region), Akyem, and Akwamu (Eastern region) emerged, mainly through gold trading. By the 19th century, southern Ghana was part of the Asante Kingdom, governed from Kumasi with a centralized bureaucracy. The Akan economy centered on gold and precious metals traded with other African states.

The Ga-Dangme and Ewe migrated from southwestern Nigeria. The Ewe, formerly Dogbo, came from Oyo, settled in Benin and Togo, and dispersed from Nortsie due to King Agorkorli’s oppressive rule. In Ghana, Ewe speak three main dialects: Anlo, Tongu, and Ewedome. The Ga-Dangme mainly inhabit the Greater Accra and parts of the Eastern Region, while the Ewe live in the Volta Region and in neighbouring countries.

European contact and colonialism

Trade between the Akan people and European states began when the Portuguese arrived on the Gold Coast in the 15th century. The Portuguese established the Portuguese Gold Coast, attracted by gold, and built a trading post at Anomansah, which they renamed São Jorge da Mina. In 1481, King John II of Portugal sent Diogo de Azambuja to construct Elmina Castle, completed within three years.

By the end of the 16th century, Dutch traders joined the Portuguese, founding the Dutch Gold Coast and building forts at Fort Komenda and Kormantsi. In 1617, the Dutch captured Elmina Castle, and in 1642 took Axim, including Fort St Anthony.

Other Europeans soon entered the region’s lucrative gold trade: the Swedes established the Swedish Gold Coast, Denmark–Norway founded the Danish Gold Coast, and German merchants created the Brandenburger Gold Coast (Groß Friedrichsburg). Over 30 castles and forts were constructed by these traders, who also became involved in the Atlantic slave trade.

In 1874, Britain gained control over parts of the region, establishing the British Gold Coast. Military clashes occurred between British colonists and Akan states, most notably with the Ashanti Kingdom, which won several battles during the century-long Anglo-Ashanti wars but ultimately lost during the War of the Golden Stool in 1900.

Transition to independence

In 1947, the United Gold Coast Convention, led by “The Big Six,” sought self-government after the 1946 Gold Coast legislative election. Kwame Nkrumah, later Ghana’s first prime minister and president, founded the Convention People’s Party in 1949 to campaign for immediate independence. His party’s non-violent protests led to his imprisonment, but he was elected to Parliament in the 1951 general election and released, becoming prime minister in 1952.

On 6 March 1957, the territories of the Gold Coast, Ashanti, Northern Territories, and British Togoland unified as independent Ghana under the British Commonwealth through the Ghana Independence Act 1957. Ghana’s current flag also dates from this period. After a 1960 referendum, Nkrumah declared Ghana a republic and became its first president. Independence Day is celebrated on 6 March, and Republic Day on 1 July.

Nkrumah’s rule was authoritarian; a 1964 constitutional amendment made Ghana a one-party state with him as president for life. He promoted Pan-Africanism, influenced by Marcus Garvey, Martin Luther King Jr., and W. E. B. Du Bois, and contributed to the Non-Aligned Movement. Nkrumah established the Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute to teach communism and socialism. His centenary is now observed as Founders’ Day, a public holiday in Ghana.

Operation Cold Chop and aftermath

The government led by Nkrumah was toppled in a coup organised by the Ghana Armed Forces, under the operation known as “Operation Cold Chop.” The event took place while Nkrumah was visiting the People’s Republic of China with Zhou Enlai, on a diplomatic mission to Hanoi, Vietnam, aiming to contribute to ending the Vietnam War. On 24 February 1966, Colonel Emmanuel Kwasi Kotoka and Brigadier Akwasi Afrifa led the coup. Following this, the National Liberation Council was established, headed by Lieutenant General Joseph A. Ankrah.

From 1966 onward, Ghana experienced a succession of military and civilian administrations, frequently troubled by economic instability. This period concluded when Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings of the Provisional National Defence Council assumed power in 1981. As a result, the constitution was suspended, and all political parties were banned. The economy rapidly declined, leading Rawlings to seek a structural adjustment program and reform past economic policies; growth subsequently resumed in the mid-1980s. Political reforms followed, and a new constitution, reestablishing a multi-party system, was introduced in the presidential election of 1992, with Rawlings elected president, and again in the general election of 1996.

In 1994, a tribal war broke out in Northern Ghana involving the Konkomba and other ethnic communities such as the Nanumba, Dagomba, and Gonja. The conflict resulted in between 1,000 and 2,000 fatalities and displaced approximately 150,000 individuals.

Following the 2000 general election, John Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party assumed the presidency of Ghana on 7 January 2001. He was subsequently re-elected in 2004, thus completing two terms—the constitutional limit—and marking the first peaceful transfer of power between two legitimately elected leaders under the fourth republic.

In the closely contested 2008 general election, the ruling party’s candidate, Nana Akufo-Addo, was narrowly defeated by John Atta Mills of the National Democratic Congress. Upon President Mills’ passing from natural causes, Vice President John Mahama succeeded him on 24 July 2012. Following the 2012 general election, Mahama secured the presidency in his own right, and Ghana was subsequently recognized as a “stable democracy.” As a result of the 2016 general election, Nana Akufo-Addo became president on 7 January 2017 and was re-elected after a highly competitive election in 2020.

To address deforestation, Ghana launched Green Ghana Day on 11 June 2021, with the goal of planting five million trees.

Geography

Ghana is situated on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa, just a few degrees north of the Equator. The country encompasses an area of 238,540 km² (92,101 sq mi) and features an Atlantic coastline approximately 560 kilometres (350 miles) in length. Its geographic coordinates lie between latitudes 4°45′N and 11°N, and longitudes 1°15′E and 3°15′W. Notably, the Prime Meridian traverses Tema, near Accra, making Ghana the nation nearest to the confluence of the Prime Meridian and the Equator (0°, 0°), which is located offshore in the Atlantic Ocean.

The landscape of Ghana is characterized predominantly by grasslands interspersed with southern coastal shrublands and forests. Forested regions extend approximately 320 kilometres (200 miles) inland from the coast and reach up to 270 kilometres (170 miles) eastward, providing significant sites for the extraction of industrial minerals and timber. Ghana encompasses five terrestrial ecoregions: Eastern Guinean forests, Guinean forest–savanna mosaic, West Sudanian savanna, Central African mangroves, and Guinean mangroves.

The White Volta River and its tributary, the Black Volta, flow southward through Ghana into Lake Volta, which ranks as the world’s third-largest reservoir by volume and the largest by surface area. This lake was formed by the construction of the hydroelectric Akosombo Dam, completed in 1965. From Lake Volta, the Volta River continues its course into the Gulf of Guinea. The northernmost point of Ghana is Pulmakong, while its southernmost point is Cape Three Points.

Climate

Ghana has a tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons, divided into three hydro-climatic zones: the comparatively dry eastern coastal belt, hot and humid southwest, and hot, dry north. Climate change is causing rising temperatures, altered rainfall, more extreme weather, drought, wild fires, floods, and sea-level rise, impacting infrastructure, hydropower, food security, water supply, and livelihoods in farming and fisheries. Economic impacts are expected due to reliance on climate-sensitive sectors like agriculture, energy, and forestry. Diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and cholera may become more prevalent. Ghana signed the Paris Agreement in 2016, aiming to cut 64 million metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 and reach net zero by 2060.

Relief and regions

Ghana features coastal plains, central forested hills, and northern savanna. Main geographic areas include the Coastal Plain, Ashanti uplands, Volta Basin (dominated by Lake Volta), and Northern Plains. The highest elevation is Mount Afadja (885 m) in the Akwapim-Togo Range.

Hydrology

The Volta River system dominates Ghana, with the White Volta and Black Volta converging in the north and flowing into Lake Volta, formed by the Akosombo Dam (1965). The river exits into the Gulf of Guinea east of Accra; other major rivers include the Pra, Ankobra, and Tano.

Extremities

Pulmakong, near Burkina Faso, is Ghana’s northernmost settlement; Cape Three Points is the southernmost point.

Politics

Ghana is a unitary presidential constitutional democracy with a parliamentary multi-party system dominated by the National Democratic Congress (NDC) and the New Patriotic Party (NPP). After alternating between civilian and military rule, Ghana established the Fourth Republic in 1993 following elections in 1992. The 1992 constitution divides power among the President (commander-in-chief of the Ghana Armed Forces), Parliament, Cabinet, Council of State, and an independent judiciary. Elections are held every four years by universal suffrage, and presidents are limited to two terms.

Nana Akufo-Addo won the presidency in the 2016 and 2020 general elections, the latter after a legal challenge by former president John Mahama. International indices in 2012 ranked Ghana among Africa’s least fragile and least corrupt countries, with strong governance and political stability. According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy Indices, Ghana ranks 67th globally and 10th in Africa for electoral democracy.

Foreign relations

Since gaining independence, Ghana has maintained a commitment to nonalignment and is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement. The country supports both international and regional cooperation, actively participating in organizations like the United Nations and the African Union.

Ghana enjoys strong ties with the United States; notable visits include those by U.S. presidents Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama, as well as Vice President Kamala Harris. Many Ghanaian diplomats and politicians hold roles within international organizations, including Kofi Annan, the former Secretary-General of the United Nations; Akua Kuenyehia, a judge at the International Criminal Court; and former Presidents Jerry John Rawlings and John Agyekum Kufuor, who both served as UN diplomats. Among these, Kofi Annan stands out as the most prominent, having served as the seventh Secretary-General of the UN.

In September 2010, President John Atta Mills made an official visit to China, where he and Hu Jintao, then general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, celebrated fifty years of diplomatic relations at the Great Hall of the People. This relationship was further strengthened in November 2011 with an official visit from Zhou Tienong, vice-chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress of China, who met with Ghana’s then-president John Mahama. China has become one of Ghana’s leading investors, focusing on infrastructure, natural resources, and the manufacturing sector, contributing to economic growth, job creation, and technology transfer. Nonetheless, issues regarding transparency, sustainability, and environmental impacts of Chinese investments have raised concerns and call for careful evaluation. In 2013, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad met with President Mahama to discuss strengthening the Non-Aligned Movement and co-chaired a bilateral meeting at the Flagstaff House, Ghana’s presidential palace.

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have been woven into Ghana’s development strategy and budget, using a decentralized planning method that encourages participation from stakeholders such as UN agencies, traditional leaders, civil society groups, and academics. These seventeen SDGs serve as a global initiative to end poverty, among other goals, and the UN along with its partners are working towards their achievement in Ghana. President Nana Akufo-Addo noted that Ghana was “the first Sub-Saharan African country to achieve the goal of halving poverty,” fulfilling Goal 1 of the Millennium Development Goals.

Military

In 1957, the Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) comprised headquarters, support services, three infantry battalions, and a reconnaissance squadron equipped with armoured vehicles. President Nkrumah sought to quickly expand the GAF to support ambitions for a United States of Africa. New battalions were added in 1961 and 1964, with the sixth battalion originating from a parachute airborne unit formed in 1963. Today, Ghana is viewed as a regional power and regional hegemon. In his book Shake Hands with the Devil, Canadian Forces commander Roméo Dallaire highly praised GAF soldiers and personnel.

GAF’s military operations and doctrine are guided by the constitution, national military strategy, and agreements with the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre. Military actions are conducted under the Ministry of Defence. While Ghana is generally peaceful—often regarded as one of the least violent countries regionally—it has experienced political violence in the past, with incidents increasing in 2017, many driven by political grievances.

Law enforcement

The Ghana Police Service and the Criminal Investigation Department serve as Ghana’s main law enforcement agencies, responsible for detecting crime, maintaining law and order, and ensuring internal peace and security. The Ghana Police Service has eleven specialized units, such as a Militarized Police, Rapid Deployment Force, and the Marine Police Unit. There are 12 divisions within the Ghana Police Service: ten assigned to the country’s regions, one dedicated to the seaport and industrial center of Tema, and another focused on Railways, Ports, and Harbours. The Marine Police Unit addresses concerns related to the offshore oil and gas industry.

The Ghana Prisons Service, along with its subdivision, the Borstal Institute for Juveniles, oversees incarceration. Ghana maintains the death penalty for crimes such as treason, corruption, robbery, piracy, drug trafficking, rape, and homicide. The United Nations’ new sustainable development goals encourage the international community to advance the rule of law, support equal access to justice, reduce corruption, and develop effective, accountable, and transparent institutions at all levels.

Ghana serves as a major transshipment hub for the narcotics trade, frequently used by traffickers from South America and other African countries. In 2013, the head of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime noted that “West Africa is completely weak in terms of border control,” leading major cartels from Colombia and Latin America to use Africa as a pathway to Europe. The narcotics industry operates largely underground in Ghana, so awareness of intercepted drugs is limited among the general public. Ghana’s position along the Gulf of Guinea and the country’s social conditions surrounding trafficking, storage, transportation, and repackaging make it an appealing location for the drug trade.

The Narcotics Control Board has seized container ships carrying thousands of kilograms of cocaine at the Sekondi Naval Base in Takoradi Harbour, with street values reaching into billions of Ghana cedis. Despite these enforcement efforts, drug seizures decreased in 2011. Drug cartels are now using new production and export methods to avoid detection by Ghanaian security forces. Factors such as weak institutions, open borders, and established smuggling networks contribute to Ghana’s role in the international narcotics industry. President Mills launched ongoing initiatives to reduce the involvement of airports in the country’s drug trade.

Human rights

Homosexual acts are prohibited by law in Ghana. According to a 2013 survey by the Pew Research Center, 96% of Ghanaians believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society. Sometimes elderly women in Ghana are accused of witchcraft, particularly in rural Ghana. Issues of witchcraft mainly remain as speculations based on superstitions within families. In some parts of northern Ghana, there exist what are called witch camps. These are said to house a total of around 1,000 people accused of witchcraft. The Ghanaian government has announced that it intends to close the camps.

Economy

Ghana has significant industrial minerals, hydrocarbons, and precious metals, and is developing into a mixed digital economy and emerging market. The “Ghana Vision 2020” plan aims for Ghana to become Africa’s first developed country between 2020 and 2029 and a newly industrialised nation between 2030 and 2039, excluding South Africa. The country’s economy ties in with the Chinese yuan renminbi, especially due to its gold reserves, and the currency is circulated alongside the Ghanaian cedi. In 2013, poverty was more prevalent in rural areas (38%) compared to urban (11%), with most rural poor engaged in agriculture.

Major electricity producers include the Volta River Authority and Ghana National Petroleum Corporation, with several hydroelectric dams such as Akosombo and Bui providing power. Plans exist for building Africa’s second nuclear plant. The Ghana Stock Exchange ranks fifth in continental Africa and third in Sub-Saharan Africa by market capitalisation, and was the region’s second-best-performing exchange in 2013.

Ghana is the world’s second-largest cocoa producer and a member of ICCO. Classified as middle-income, its GDP is driven mainly by services (50%), manufacturing (24.1%), extractive industries (5%), and taxes (20.9%). The nation exports digital technology products, automobiles, ships, petroleum, and natural gas. Its ICT sector is vital, with companies like Rlg Communications producing electronics. Electric cars have been made since 2014.

In 2021, Ghana planned to issue social and green bonds—the first among African countries—to refinance debt and fund educational and environmental projects, despite economic challenges. Similar bonds have been offered by Chile and Ecuador.

Ghana produces and exports hydrocarbons like sweet crude oil and natural gas. The state-owned Ghana Oil Company is the leading petroleum and gas filling station, while Ghana National Petroleum Corporation manages hydrocarbon exploration. Ghana plans to boost oil output to 2.2 million barrels/day and gas to 34 million cubic metres/day. The Jubilee Oil Field, discovered in 2007, holds up to 3 billion barrels of sweet crude oil. Ghana’s petroleum reserves range from 5 to 7 billion barrels, ranking fifth in Africa and among the top 25 worldwide. Natural gas reserves are estimated at 170 billion cubic metres. The government aims to nationalise these resources to increase revenue.

In gold production, Ghana generated 88 metric tonnes in 2015 and about 140 tonnes in 2019, making it Africa’s largest producer and seventh globally. Other exports include silver, timber, diamonds, bauxite, and manganese; Ghana ranks ninth globally for diamond exports. Plans to nationalize mining are underway.

Electricity shortages in 2015–16 led to outages (dumsor), but by 2019, electricity supply was surplus. Ghana’s judicial system addresses corruption and economic malpractice. In Transparency International’s 2018 Index, Ghana ranked 78th out of 180 countries with a score of 41.

Science and Technology

Ghana launched mobile networks in 1992 and later introduced ADSL broadband. In 2024, it was 99th in the Global Innovation Index. The Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre and Ghana Space Agency oversee space activities, including launching an observational satellite in 2015. Annual space exploration spending is 1% of GDP. Ghana chaired the Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South and collaborates with the South African National Space Agency.

Tourism

In 2011, Ghana welcomed 1,087,000 tourists from regions such as South America, Asia, Europe, and North America. The country offers a variety of attractions, including waterfalls like the Kintampo Waterfalls and West Africa’s largest, Wli Waterfalls, along with palm-fringed beaches, caves, mountains, rivers, reservoirs, and lakes such as Lake Bosumtwi and Lake Volta—the world’s largest artificial lake by surface area. Visitors can also explore numerous forts, castles, World Heritage Sites, nature reserves, and national parks. Notable among these are Cape Coast Castle and Elmina Castle—sites that commemorate the tragedies of the slave trade and serve to preserve African heritage disrupted during that period.

UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention recognizes Ghana’s castles and forts as World Heritage Monuments, noting their pivotal role over four centuries in both the gold and slave trades and highlighting their significance in the story of the African Diaspora.

According to the World Economic Forum’s 2010 data, Ghana was ranked 108th out of 139 countries as a favourite tourist destination, rising two spots from 2009. In 2011, Forbes named Ghana the 11th friendliest country in the world, based on a 2010 survey of international travellers, making it the highest-ranked African nation surveyed. Tourism is currently Ghana’s fourth largest source of foreign exchange earnings. As of 2024, Ghana ranks as the 55th most peaceful country globally.

Surfing has gained popularity along Ghana’s coastline, with both locals and visitors developing surfing spots and sharing waves with traditional fishing vessels. According to Destination Pride, Ghana holds a Pride score of 22 out of 100.

Demographics

As of 2024, Ghana’s population is 34,581,288, with a median age of 21. About 29% are under 15, and 57.8% are aged 15–64. The largest ethnic groups reported in the 2010 census are Akan (47.3%), Mole-Dagbani (18.5%), Ewe (13.9%), Ga-Dangme (7.4%), Gurma (5.7%), and Guan (3.7%). Ghana makes up 0.42% of the world’s population. Recent legal immigration has introduced small communities of Chinese, Malaysian, Indian, Middle Eastern, and European nationals holding Ghana Cards. In 2010, 14.6% of Ghana’s population—about 3.1 million—were economic or undocumented migrants, mainly from Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Togo, and Mali. Historical events include the 1969 Ghana Aliens Compliance Order, which led to the deportation of over three million immigrants, and a 2013 mass deportation of more than 4,000 undocumented Chinese miners.

Languages

English is Ghana’s official language. Alongside it, eleven government-recognised languages are used:

Akan languages—Asante Twi, Akuapem Twi, Fante, and Bono (all highly mutually intelligible), plus Nzema (which is less closely related)

• Dangme
• Ewe
• Ga
• Guan
• Kasem
• Mole–Dagbani languages—Dagaare and Dagbanli

Of these, Asante Twi is the most widely spoken. Ghana, bordered by several French-speaking countries, places strong emphasis on French education; it is commonly taught in schools and used in commercial and international exchanges. Since 2005, Ghana has been an associate member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (an international organisation of 84 French-speaking nations spanning six continents). In 2005, over 350,000 Ghanaian students were learning French, and since then, French has become mandatory in all junior high schools and is being considered as an official language.

Ghanaian Pidgin English (also called Kru English or, in Akan, kroo brofo) is a variant of West African Pidgin English found in Accra and other southern towns. It includes two varieties: “uneducated” (or “non-institutionalized”) pidgin, typically associated with people who have not had formal schooling, and “educated” (“institutionalized”) pidgin, used in universities and similar institutions.

Religion

Christianity is the majority religion in Ghana, followed by 71.3% of the population according to the 2021 census. [197] Islam is practised by about 20%. According to a 2012 Pew Research report, about 51% of Muslims follow Sunni Islam, 16% are part of the Ahmadiyya movement, 8% identify as Shia Muslims, and the rest are non-denominational Muslims. There is no significant link between ethnicity and religion in Ghana. The country is also home to around 150,000 Jehovah’s Witnesses.

Orange Order

The Grand Orange Lodge of Ghana is a Protestant fraternal organization within the global Orange Order. Its best-known branch is The Loyal Leopold Lodge No. 907, established in 1894 by Dr. A.D. MacDonald, a British colonial official. Originally, the lodge welcomed only European administrators, military officers, and merchants. Over time, it began admitting local African members—a notable change from the overwhelmingly white Protestant lodges of Ireland and Britain. Today, the lodge’s members take part in events and parades like The Twelfth and engage in community service and charitable activities.

Universal health care and life expectancy

Ghana operates a universal health care system known as the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS), which is exclusively available to Ghanaian nationals. The quality and availability of health care services vary throughout the country. As of 2012, over 12 million Ghanaian nationals were enrolled in the NHIS. Urban areas are better served and house the majority of hospitals, clinics, and pharmacies. Ghana has more than 200 hospitals and serves as a destination for medical tourism. In 2010, there were 0.1 physicians per 1,000 people and, as of 2011, 0.9 hospital beds per 1,000 people. Health expenditure accounted for 5.2% of Ghana’s GDP in 2010. In 2020, the WHO announced that Ghana had become the second country in the WHO African Region to achieve regulatory system “maturity level 3,” the second-highest rank in the four-tiered WHO classification for National medicines regulatory systems.

In 2021, life expectancy at birth was 68.6 years for females and 63.7 years for males. In 2013, the infant mortality rate was 39 per 1,000 live births. Estimates of life expectancy at birth differ; the World Health Organization estimated it at 62 years for men and 64 years for women born in 2016. The fertility rate decreased from 3.99 in 2000 to 3.28 in 2010, with urban areas at 2.78 and rural areas at 3.94. According to the United Nations, the fertility rate declined from 6.95 in 1970 to 4.82 in 2000, and to 3.93 live births per woman in 2017.

As of 2012, the prevalence of HIV/AIDS among adults aged 15–49 was estimated at 1.40%.

Education

The education system consists of three levels: basic education, secondary cycle, and tertiary education. Basic education lasts 11 years for children aged 4 to 15. It includes two years of kindergarten, six years of primary school (split into two three-year modules), and three years of junior high. Junior high concludes with the Basic Education Certificate Examination, after which students can continue to the secondary cycle.

At this stage, students can choose either general education at senior high school or vocational training at technical senior high schools or institutes. Senior high school takes three years and ends with the West African Senior School Certificate Examination, necessary for university admission. Vocational students are also eligible to attend polytechnics.

A bachelor’s degree typically requires four years of study, followed by one or two years for a master’s degree, and then a minimum of three years for a PhD. Polytechnic courses take two to three years. Ghana also has colleges dedicated to teacher education. Notable universities include the University of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, and University of Cape Coast.

More than 95% of children attend school, and in 2010, the youth literacy rate (ages 15–24) was 81%, with males at 82% and females at 80%. The country attracts foreign students, especially at universities.

Ghana offers a free education program for six years of primary schooling starting at age 6, with government funding for most public primary and junior high schools. Since the 2017/2018 academic year, senior high school has also been free. At the tertiary level, the government covers over 80% of the costs for public institutions. Through the Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education initiative (Fcube), the government supplies textbooks and materials to all public basic schools and senior high schools, while private schools obtain their educational materials independently.

Culture

Food and drink

Ghanaian cuisine encompasses a wide variety of soups and stews featuring assorted seafoods; the majority of these soups are prepared utilising vegetables, meat, poultry, or fish. Fish constitutes a significant component of the diet, with tilapia, roasted and fried whitebait, smoked fish, and crayfish commonly integrated into meals. Banku (akple), a staple dish made from ground corn (maize), and other cornmeal-based foods such as kɔmi (kenkey) and banku (akple) are frequently served alongside fried fish (chinam) or grilled tilapia, complemented by an intensely spicy condiment comprising raw red and green chillies, onions, and tomatoes (pepper sauce). The combination of banku and tilapia is widely offered in restaurants. Fufu stands out as the most internationally recognised Ghanaian dish, cherished across the African diaspora. Rice is firmly established as a staple throughout Ghana, with distinctive rice-based dishes—such as waakye, plain rice accompanied by either kontomire or tomato gravy, fried rice, and jollof rice—serving as breakfast, lunch, and dinner options.

Literature

Ghanaian literature comprises works authored by individuals from Ghana or the Ghanaian diaspora. Rooted in an extensive oral tradition, it underwent significant transformation under Western influence during the colonial era and emerged with a distinguished post-colonial nationalist identity in the mid-twentieth century. Today, the literary community exhibits remarkable diversity, encompassing voices from within Ghana and abroad, and extending into film, theatre, and digital formats such as blogging. Esteemed Ghanaian authors include novelists J. E. Casely Hayford, Ayi Kwei Armah, and Nii Ayikwei Parkes, who have received international recognition for their respective works: Ethiopia Unbound (1911), The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born (1968), and Tail of the Blue Bird (2009). In addition to novels, other literary genres—including theatre and poetry—have thrived nationally, with prominent playwrights, poets, and historians such as Joe de Graft and Efua Sutherland contributing significantly to the field. The national radio programme and publication Voices of Ghana (1955–1957) was among the first of its kind in Africa, helping shape the trajectory of modern Ghanaian literary tradition. Academic studies of Anglophone African literature occasionally prioritise works from other regions, notably the literature of Nigeria.

Clothing

In the 13th century, Ghanaians created the distinct art of adinkra printing, originally reserved for royalty and used in ceremonial settings. Each adinkra motif has a name and meaning linked to proverbs, events, attitudes, nature, or objects, with categories such as aesthetics, ethics, human relations, and concepts. Adinkra symbols serve decorative purposes and convey messages about tradition, wisdom, and life—often relating to proverbs. As Anthony Appiah notes, these symbols helped transmit complex cultural beliefs in pre-literate societies.

In addition to adinkra cloth, Ghanaians employ a variety of fabrics for traditional attire, with each ethnic group possessing its distinct textile. The most renowned of these is the Kente cloth, which holds significant cultural and national importance. Kente serves both as an element of traditional costume and as inspiration for contemporary fashion, with various colours and symbols conveying specific meanings.

Kente is widely recognised as the most prominent among Ghanaian textiles. It is a ceremonial fabric, hand-woven on a horizontal treadle loom, with strips approximately four inches wide sewn together to form larger garments. These cloths are produced in multiple colours, sizes, and designs, and are typically worn during major social and religious events.

Culturally, kente transcends its utilitarian function, acting as a visual record of history and serving as a form of written expression through its weaving patterns. The term “kente” originates from the Akan word kɛntɛn, meaning “basket,” referencing the first weavers’ use of raffia fibres to create basket-like cloths, initially called kenten ntoma (“basket cloth”). Kente is also woven by the Ewe people in the Volta Region—known as Ewe Kente—with principal weaving centres located in the Agortime area and Agbozume. Agbozume hosts a dynamic kente market, attracting patrons from across West Africa and the diaspora.

Contemporary Ghanaian fashion blends traditional and modern elements, gaining recognition in Africa and worldwide. The widely known African print fabric originated from Dutch wax textiles brought to West Africa in the late 19th century, later adapted to local tastes—especially in Ghana. Now called “Ankara” outside Africa, it is popular among diasporic communities and has been embraced by international celebrities and designers. Major brands like Burberry and designers such as Ozwald Boateng have also incorporated African prints into their collections.

Music and dance

Music in Ghana features a rich variety of instruments, including talking drum ensembles, the Akan Drum, goje fiddle, koloko lute, court music elements like the Akan Seperewa, Akan atumpan, Ga kpanlogo styles, and log xylophones used in asonko music. Afro-jazz, described as “the reuniting of African-American jazz with its African roots,” was pioneered by Kofi Ghanaba. Highlife, a form of secular music that emerged during the 19th and 20th centuries, spread across West Africa. In the 1990s, highlife blended with Afro-reggae, dancehall, and hip hop to create a new genre called hiplife.

Ghanaian dances suit many occasions, especially celebrations, and include Adowa, Kpanlogo, Azonto, Klama, Agbadza, Borborbor, and Bamaya. The Nana Otafrija Pallbearing Services, better known as the Dancing Pallbearers, gained international attention in a BBC feature story in 2017, with footage later becoming an Internet meme following the COVID-19 pandemic.

Media

Chapter 12 of Ghana’s 1992 Constitution assures freedom of the press and media independence, while Chapter 2 forbids censorship. During the post-independence period, private media outlets were shut down under military governments, and laws restricted criticism of the government. Press freedoms returned in 1992; after Kufuor’s election in 2000, the relationship between private media and the government improved. Supporting press freedom, Kufuor repealed a libel law but emphasized responsible media conduct. Ghana’s media is often called “one of the most unfettered” in Africa.

Architecture

Ghana boasts two main types of construction: clusters of buildings arranged around a communal area and round huts with grass roofs. The northern regions typically feature round, grass-roofed huts, while adjacent building complexes are common in the south. Southern Ghana also showcases postmodern and high-tech architecture, alongside historical sites such as over 30 forts and castles, including Fort William and Fort Amsterdam. Some museums are housed within these historic structures, such as inside castles and forts; the Military Museum and National Museum regularly host temporary exhibitions.

Several museums in Ghana offer deep insights into particular regions, exploring local traditions and history. The Cape Coast Castle Museum and Elmina Castle’s St. Georges Castle Museum provide guided tours, while the Museum of Science and Technology lets visitors explore scientific advancements.

Sports

Association football is the most prominent spectator sport in Ghana. The nation has secured the Africa Cup of Nations title on four occasions, won the FIFA U-20 World Cup once, participated in four FIFA World Cups (2006, 2010, 2014, and 2022), and claimed victory at the FIFA U-17 World Cup twice. The International Federation of Football History and Statistics recognised Asante Kotoko SC as the African Club of the 20th Century.

Ghana consistently competes in the Commonwealth Games, having sent athletes to every edition since 1954, with the exception of the 1986 Games. The country has earned a total of 57 medals at the Commonwealth Games, including 15 gold medals, with the vast majority achieved in athletics and boxing. Ghana has also produced several distinguished boxers, such as Azumah Nelson, a three-time world champion, Nana Yaw Konadu, also a three-time world champion, Ike Quartey, and Joshua Clottey.