Burundi

Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked nation in East Africa, situated within the Great Rift Valley where the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa converge. The country has a population exceeding 14 million. It shares borders with Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the east and southeast, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west; Lake Tanganyika runs along its southwestern edge. Gitega serves as the political capital, while Bujumbura functions as the economic centre.

Republic of Burundi, Repuburika y’Uburundi (Kirundi), République du Burundi (French)
Motto:  “Ubumwe, Ibikorwa, Amajambere” (Kirundi) “Muungano, Kazi, Maendeleo” (Swahili) “Unité, Travail, Progrès” (French) “Union, Work, Progress” (English)
Capital	Gitega (political)Bujumbura (economic) 3°30′S 30°00′E
Largest city	Bujumbura
Official languages	Kirundi, French, English
Ethnic groups	100% Barundi, 85% Hutu, 14% Tutsi, 1% Twa~1%
Religion (2020)	93.4% Christianity63.7% Catholicism25.2% Protestantism4.5% other Christian4.3% traditional faiths2.1% Islam0.2% other / none
Demonym(s)	Burundian
Government	Unitary dominant-party presidential republic under an authoritarian dictatorship
• President	Évariste Ndayishimiye
• Prime Minister	Nestor Ntahontuye
• Vice President	Prosper Bazombanza
Legislature	Parliament
• Upper house	Senate
• Lower house	National Assembly
Establishment history
• Kingdom of Urundi	1680–1966
• Part of German East Africa	1890–1916
• Part of Ruanda-Urundi	1916–1962
• Independence from Belgium	1 July 1962
• Republic	28 November 1966
• Current constitution	17 May 2018
Area
• Total	27,834 km2 (10,747 sq mi) (142nd)
• Water (%)	10
Population
• 2024 estimate	14,151,540 (78th)
• Density	473/km2 (1,225.1/sq mi) (25th)
Currency	Burundian franc (FBu) (BIF)
Time zone	UTC+2 (CAT)
Calling code	+257
ISO 3166 code	BI
Internet TLD	.bi

The Twa, Hutu, and Tutsi groups have inhabited Burundi for approximately 500 years. For more than 200 years, Burundi maintained independence as a kingdom. In 1885, the territory became part of German East Africa. Following Germany’s defeat in World War I, the League of Nations assigned Burundi and neighbouring Rwanda to Belgium as Rwanda-Urundi. After World War II, this arrangement transitioned into a United Nations Trust Territory. Burundi achieved independence in 1962, initially retaining its monarchy. A coup d’état in 1966 led to the replacement of the monarchy by a one-party republic, and for nearly three decades, the country was governed by various Tutsi leaders, with significant violence occurring in 1972. In July 1993, Melchior Ndadaye became Burundi’s first Hutu president after a multi-party election. His assassination three months later during an attempted coup preceded the Burundian Civil War, which lasted 12 years. The Arusha Agreement was adopted in 2000 and largely implemented in the constitution enacted in 2005. Since post-war elections in 2005, the National Council for the Defence of Democracy – Forces for the Defence of Democracy (CNDD–FDD), led by Hutu representatives, has been the dominant party and faces criticism for governance and human rights concerns.

Burundi’s society is predominantly rural, with 13.4% of residents living in urban areas as of 2019. The country is densely populated, and many young people seek opportunities abroad. Approximately 81% of the population identify as Hutu, 18% as Tutsi, and less than 1% as Twa. Kirundi, French, and English are official languages; Kirundi is designated as the national language. English was added as an official language in 2014.

Burundi is among Africa’s smaller countries, with most land allocated to subsistence farming and grazing. Deforestation, soil erosion, and habitat loss are ongoing environmental challenges. As of 2005, forested areas covered less than 6% of the country, with much of this land used for commercial plantations. Burundi has one of the lowest nominal GDP per capita rates globally and is identified as one of the least developed nations, facing persistent issues such as poverty, corruption, instability, authoritarianism, and illiteracy. In 2018, the World Happiness Report ranked it at 156th. Burundi is a member of organizations including the African Union, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, United Nations, East African Community (EAC), Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), and the Non-Aligned Movement.

Etymology

Modern Burundi takes its name from the King of Urundi, who ruled the area beginning in the 16th century. The term “Urundi” originates from the local Kirundi language and means “Another one”. During Belgian administration, the Ruanda-Urundi region and its former capital “Usumbura” were renamed, reportedly by adding the letter “B” to the original names.

History

Burundi, along with its neighbour Rwanda and several other African states (such as Botswana, Lesotho, and Eswatini), continues as a territorial successor to pre-colonial era African polities. The early history of Burundi and relations among the Twa, Hutu, and Tutsi are subjects of academic debate.

Kingdom of Burundi

The earliest records of a centralized Burundian state date to the late 16th century, originating in the eastern highlands and expanding through annexation of adjacent territories. The Kingdom of Burundi (Urundi) in the Great Lakes region operated under a monarch and a hierarchy of princes, with succession often contested. The king, known as the mwami, led an aristocracy (ganwa) that controlled land and collected tribute from farmers (primarily Hutu) and herders (primarily Tutsi). Political authority and economic exchanges in the kingdom followed a hierarchical model.

In the mid-18th century, the Tutsi nobility strengthened control over land and resources via the ubugabire system—a patron-client relationship in which protection was exchanged for tribute and land tenure. The royal court primarily comprised the Tutsi-Banyaruguru, considered to hold higher social standing than other Tutsi pastoralists like the Tutsi-Hima. Hutu individuals generally occupied lower social strata, and the Twa were at the bottom. However, the social structure allowed some mobility; wealthy Hutu could gain Tutsi status and join the nobility, whereas Tutsi who lost their livestock could become classified as Hutu. Intermarriage between Hutu and Tutsi also occurred. Overall, regional affiliations and power struggles had greater influence on politics than ethnicity.

Rule by Germany and Belgium

Beginning in 1884, the German East Africa Company operated in the African Great Lakes region. Escalating tensions and territorial disputes among the German East Africa Company, the British Empire, and the Sultanate of Zanzibar led to intervention by the German Empire, which sought to suppress the Abushiri revolts and safeguard its interests. In 1891, the German East Africa Company transferred its rights to the German Empire, establishing the colony of German East Africa—comprising Burundi (Urundi), Rwanda (Ruanda), and the mainland area of Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika). During the late 1880s, German forces were stationed in Rwanda and Burundi, with the present-day city of Gitega serving as an administrative centre for the Ruanda-Urundi region.

During World War I, the East African Campaign significantly impacted the African Great Lakes area. Allied Belgian and British colonial troops launched a coordinated offensive against the German colony, leading to the withdrawal of the German army from Burundi due to the numerical advantage of the Belgian forces. By 17 June 1916, both Burundi and Rwanda were under occupation. Subsequently, the Force Publique and the British Lake Force advanced toward Tabora, a central administrative hub for German East Africa. Following the war and the terms outlined in the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was required to cede control of the western portion of former German East Africa to Belgium.

On 20 October 1924, Ruanda-Urundi, encompassing modern-day Rwanda and Burundi, was established as a Belgian League of Nations mandate territory, administered from Usumbura, and functioned as part of the Belgian colonial empire. Despite European oversight, Burundi maintained its monarchy and many of its traditional institutions, which continued into the post-colonial period. After the Second World War, Ruanda-Urundi became a United Nations Trust Territory under Belgian administration. In the 1940s, newly implemented policies created divisions throughout the country; on 4 October 1943, legislative powers in Burundi were divided between chiefdoms and sub-chiefdoms, with chiefdoms overseeing land management. Native authorities retained certain powers as well. In 1948, Belgium permitted the formation of political parties in the region, and these developments contributed to Burundi attaining independence from Belgium on 1 July 1962.

Independence

On 20 January 1959, King Mwami Mwambutsa IV requested Burundi’s independence from Belgium and the dissolution of the Ruanda-Urundi union. In the months that followed, Burundian political parties advocated for the end of Belgian colonial rule and the separation of Rwanda and Burundi. The Union for National Progress (UPRONA) was the first and largest political party involved.

Burundi’s movement for independence was influenced by the Rwandan Revolution, which brought instability and ethnic conflict to the region. As a consequence, many Rwandan Tutsi refugees arrived in Burundi between 1959 and 1961.

The country held its first elections on 8 September 1961, with UPRONA, a multi-ethnic party led by Prince Louis Rwagasore, receiving just over 80% of the vote. Following the election, on 13 October, Prince Rwagasore was assassinated.

Burundi declared independence on 1 July 1962, changing its name from Ruanda-Urundi to Burundi. It became a constitutional monarchy led by King Mwambutsa IV. On 18 September 1962, Burundi joined the United Nations.

In 1963, King Mwambutsa appointed Pierre Ngendandumwe, a Hutu, as prime minister. He was assassinated on 15 January 1965 by a Rwandan Tutsi associated with the US Embassy. This event took place during the Congo Crisis, at a time when Western governments were confronting the People’s Republic of China over its involvement in the region. Parliamentary elections in May 1965 resulted in a Hutu majority, but King Mwambutsa later appointed a Tutsi prime minister, increasing ethnic tensions. In October 1965, a failed coup d’état was carried out by mainly Hutu police. The army, dominated by Tutsis and led by Captain Michel Micombero, removed Hutu members and initiated reprisal attacks resulting in significant casualties prior to the 1972 Burundian Genocide.

King Mwambutsa fled the country after the October 1965 coup and was deposed in July 1966. His son, Prince Ntare V, briefly assumed the throne, but was deposed later that year when Prime Minister Captain Michel Micombero abolished the monarchy and declared a republic. Micombero’s one-party government functioned as a military dictatorship. During his presidency, Micombero promoted African socialism, received support from the People’s Republic of China, enforced strict law and order policies, and suppressed Hutu militarism.

Civil war and genocides

In late April 1972, two events led to the outbreak of the First Burundian Genocide. On 27 April 1972, a rebellion led by Hutu members of the gendarmerie broke out in the lakeside towns of Rumonge and Nyanza-Lac and the rebels declared the short-lived Martyazo Republic. The rebels attacked both Tutsi and any Hutu who refused to join their rebellion. During this initial Hutu outbreak, anywhere from 800 to 1200 people were killed. At the same time, King Ntare V of Burundi returned from exile, heightening political tension in the country. On 29 April 1972, the 24-year-old Ntare V was murdered. In subsequent months, the Tutsi-dominated government of Michel Micombero used the army to combat Hutu rebels and commit genocide, murdering targeted members of the Hutu majority. The total number of casualties was never established, but contemporary estimates put the number of people killed between 80,000 and 210,000. In addition, several hundred thousand Hutu were estimated to have fled the killings into Zaïre, Rwanda and Tanzania.

Following the civil war and genocide, Micombero became mentally distraught and withdrawn. In 1976, Colonel Jean-Baptiste Bagaza, a Tutsi, led a bloodless coup to topple Micombero and set about promoting reform. His administration drafted a new constitution in 1981, which maintained Burundi’s status as a one-party state. In August 1984, Bagaza was elected head of state. During his tenure, Bagaza suppressed political opponents and religious freedoms.

Major Pierre Buyoya, a Tutsi, overthrew Bagaza in 1987, suspended the constitution and dissolved political parties. He reinstated military rule by a Military Committee for National Salvation (CSMN). Anti-Tutsi ethnic propaganda disseminated by the remnants of the 1972 UBU, which had re-organized as PALIPEHUTU in 1981, led to killings of Tutsi peasants in the northern communes of Ntega and Marangara in August 1988. The government put the death toll at 5,000,[citation needed] some international NGOs believed this understated the deaths.

The new regime did not unleash the harsh reprisals of 1972. Its effort to gain public trust was eroded when it decreed an amnesty for those who had called for, carried out, and taken credit for the killings. Analysts have called this period the beginning of the “culture of impunity.” Other analysts put the origins of the “culture of impunity” earlier, in 1965 and 1972, when a small number of identifiable Hutus unleashed massive killings of Tutsis.

In the aftermath of the killings, a group of Hutu intellectuals wrote an open letter to Pierre Buyoya, asking for more representation of the Hutu in the administration. They were arrested and jailed. A few weeks later, Buyoya appointed a new government, with an equal number of Hutu and Tutsi ministers. He appointed Adrien Sibomana (Hutu) as Prime Minister. Buyoya also created a commission to address issues of national unity. In 1992, the government created a new constitution that provided for a multi-party system, but a civil war broke out.

An estimated total of 250,000 people died in Burundi from the various conflicts between 1962 and 1993.

Since Burundi’s independence in 1962, two genocides have taken place in the country: the 1972 mass killings of Hutus by the Tutsi-dominated army, and the mass killings of Tutsis in 1993 by the Hutu majority. Both were described as genocides in the final report of the International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi presented in 2002 to the United Nations Security Council.

First attempt at democracy and war between Tutsi National Army and Hutu population

In June 1993, Melchior Ndadaye, leader of the Hutu-dominated Front for Democracy in Burundi (FRODEBU), won the first democratic election. He became the first Hutu head of state, leading a pro-Hutu government. Though he attempted to smooth the country’s bitter ethnic divide, his reforms antagonised soldiers in the Tutsi-dominated army, and he was assassinated amidst a failed military coup in October 1993, after only three months in office. The ensuing Burundian Civil War (1993–2005) saw persistent violence between Hutu rebels and the Tutsi majority army. It is estimated that some 300,000 people, mostly civilians, were killed in the years following the assassination.

In early 1994, the parliament elected Cyprien Ntaryamira (Hutu) to the office of president. He and Juvénal Habyarimana, the president of Rwanda, both Hutus, died together when their airplane was shot down in April 1994. More refugees started fleeing to Rwanda. Speaker of Parliament, Sylvestre Ntibantunganya (Hutu), was appointed as president in October 1994. A coalition government involving 12 of the 13 parties was formed. A feared general massacre was averted, but violence broke out. A number of Hutu refugees in Bujumbura,[citation needed] the then-capital, were killed. The mainly Tutsi Union for National Progress withdrew from the government and parliament.

In 1996, Pierre Buyoya (Tutsi) again took power through a coup d’état. He suspended the constitution and was sworn in as president in 1998. This was the start of his second term as president, after his first term from 1987 to 1993. In response to rebel attacks, the government forced much of the population to move to refugee camps. Under Buyoya’s rule, long peace talks started, mediated by South Africa. Both parties signed agreements in Arusha, Tanzania and Pretoria, South Africa, to share power in Burundi. The agreements took four years to plan.

On 28 August 2000, a transitional government was proposed for Burundi as part of the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement. The transitional administration was implemented on a trial basis for five years. Following several failed cease-fire attempts, a peace plan and power-sharing agreement in 2001 led to relative stability. In 2003, a cease-fire agreement was reached between the Tutsi-controlled Burundian government and the largest Hutu rebel group, CNDD-FDD (National Council for the Defence of Democracy-Forces for the Defence of Democracy).

In 2003, FRODEBU leader Domitien Ndayizeye (Hutu) was elected president. In early 2005, ethnic quotas were established for appointing positions within Burundi’s government. During that year, elections for parliament and president were held.

Pierre Nkurunziza (Hutu), a former leader of a rebel group, was elected president in 2005. As of 2008, the Burundian government engaged in discussions with the Hutu-led Palipehutu-National Liberation Forces (NLF)  with the aim of achieving peace.

Peace agreements

After a request from United Nations Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, African leaders facilitated a series of peace talks among the factions involved in the conflict. The negotiations began under the guidance of former Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere in 1995; following his death, South African President Nelson Mandela assumed leadership. Over time, South African President Thabo Mbeki and United States President Bill Clinton also contributed to the process.

The primary focus was to reform the structure of Burundi’s government and military in order to address the ethnic divide between Tutsi and Hutu communities. The proposed process involved two main phases: first, establishing a transitional power-sharing government with three-year presidential terms, and second, restructuring the armed forces to provide equal representation for both groups.

The protracted nature of the peace talks illustrated several challenges encountered by mediators and negotiating parties. Some Burundian officials considered the objectives to be “unrealistic” and found the treaty ambiguous and contradictory. Furthermore, participants felt the treaty would lack effectiveness without a concurrent cease-fire, necessitating separate direct negotiations with rebel factions. The main Hutu party expressed skepticism regarding the power-sharing arrangement, citing previous experiences with unfulfilled agreements.

In 2000, the Burundian President and 13 out of 19 Hutu and Tutsi factions signed the agreement. However, disputes continued over leadership roles within the new government and the timing of the ceasefire. Certain hardliner Tutsi and Hutu groups declined to sign, which resulted in continued violence. Three years later, during a summit in Tanzania, the Burundian president and the principal opposition Hutu group signed an accord, following which signatory members were offered ministerial posts within the government. Despite these efforts, smaller Hutu militant groups, such as the Forces for National Liberation, remained active.

UN involvement

Between 1993 and 2003, several rounds of peace talks were held under the supervision of regional leaders from Tanzania, South Africa, and Uganda, resulting in power-sharing agreements designed to address the concerns of major groups involved. The South African Protection Support Detachment was initially responsible for protecting Burundian leaders returning from exile before integrating into the African Union Mission to Burundi, which assisted with establishing a transitional government. In June 2004, the United Nations assumed peacekeeping responsibilities to demonstrate international support for the ongoing peace process in Burundi.

The mission’s mandate, under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, includes monitoring cease-fire, overseeing disarmament, demobilisation, reintegration of former military personnel, supporting humanitarian aid and refugee and IDP return, assisting with elections, protecting international staff and Burundian civilians, monitoring borders to prevent illicit arms flows, and facilitating institutional reforms such as those affecting the Constitution, judiciary, armed forces, and police. The mission has been allocated 5,650 military personnel, 120 civilian police, and approximately 1,000 international and local civilian staff.

A primary challenge at the outset was resistance from a Hutu nationalist rebel group, which engaged in conflict near the capital despite the UN presence. By June 2005, this group had ceased hostilities and rejoined the political process. All political parties adopted guidelines requiring ethnic integration for access to government offices.

The UN mission prioritized formalizing power-sharing arrangements through a constitution approved by over 90% of voters in February 2005, enabling subsequent local, parliamentary, and presidential elections in May, June, and August 2005. While issues related to refugee returns and food security persist, the mission established working relationships with previous leaders and the broader population.  Efforts included projects focused on rebuilding infrastructure such as schools, orphanages, health clinics, and water lines.

The 2005 Constitution established a complex framework for power-sharing described as “associational,” aiming to ensure representation for the Tutsi minority without emphasizing ethnic divisions within Burundian politics. This institutional model reflects contributions from Burundian negotiators and constitution makers regarding approaches to managing ethnic conflict.

2006 to 2018

Reconstruction in Burundi began to make progress after 2006, with the UN shifting its focus to rebuilding efforts. Burundi, Rwanda, and D.R. Congo reestablished the Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries, and Burundi joined the East African Community in 2007. However, the ceasefire between the government and the FLN was not fully implemented, leading to renewed clashes, insecurity among FLN members, and violence in the capital and rural areas. Rebel factions disagreed with the government over disarmament and political prisoners, resulting in attacks on camps and pillaging homes from late 2007 into early 2008.

The 2007 report from Amnesty International identified several areas for improvement. Civilians have experienced acts of violence attributed to the FLN, which has also been reported to recruit child soldiers. Incidents of violence against women are noted as being frequent. There are cases where offenders avoid prosecution and punishment by state authorities. Recommendations include reforming the judicial system. Reports state that genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity have at times not resulted in prosecution.

In late March 2008, the FLN requested parliament to consider legislation granting them ‘provisional immunity’ from arrest, applying to ordinary crimes but excluding serious violations of international humanitarian law such as war crimes or crimes against humanity. Although similar measures have previously been provided, the FLN did not obtain this immunity.

On 17 April 2008, the FLN launched an attack on Bujumbura, with the Burundian army responding and reporting heavy losses among FLN forces. A new ceasefire was established on 26 May 2008. In August 2008, President Nkurunziza participated in a meeting with FLN leader Agathon Rwasa, mediated by Charles Nqakula, South Africa’s Minister for Safety and Security. This marked the first direct meeting since June 2007, and both parties agreed to meet biweekly to create a commission to address disputes arising during peace negotiations.

The UN has undertaken evaluations of its peace-building efforts. In the early 2010s, the peacekeeping mission in Burundi attempted to measure the effectiveness of its Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration program by reviewing the number of arms collected, given their widespread presence in the country. These assessments did not incorporate data from local populations, which can be important in evaluating the impact of peacebuilding initiatives.

By 2012, Burundi was active in African Union peacekeeping missions, including operations in Somalia against Al-Shabaab. In 2014, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission was launched for four years and extended in 2018.

2015 unrest

In April 2015, protests erupted after the ruling party announced President Pierre Nkurunziza would seek a third term; although some members had fled, the constitutional court allowed his candidacy. A coup attempt on 13 May failed, leading Nkurunziza to return, purge his government, and arrest coup leaders. Protests continued, over 100,000 people fled by 20 May, and reports of serious human rights abuses—including killings, torture, disappearances, and limits on expression—emerged.

The ruling party held parliamentary elections on 29 June, despite opposition boycotts and appeals from international entities to postpone.

The UN Human Rights Council created the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi in September 2016 to investigate human rights violations since April 2015, identify those responsible, and make recommendations. In September 2017, the Commission urged Burundi’s government to end abuses such as arbitrary detention, torture, extrajudicial killings, disappearances, and sexual violence, but noted that the government had not cooperated with their investigation.

2018 to present

In May 2018, Burundians approved a constitutional amendment allowing President Nkurunziza to remain in office until 2034, but he later chose not to run again. In the 2020 general election, Evariste Ndayishimiye was elected president with 71.45% of the vote. Nkurunziza died of cardiac arrest on 9 June 2020, and Pascal Nyabenda served as interim leader until Ndayishimiye’s inauguration on 18 June 2020.

In December 2021, a large prison fire killed dozens in the capital city of Gitega.

In November 2022, in challenges to the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Burundi’s economic growth increased slightly to 3 percent, according to an assessment of the International Monetary Fund.

Currently, Burundi remains as one of the poorest nations on Earth based on a Gross National Income (GNI) of $270 per capita.

The fall of Goma in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in January 2025 was the largest escalation of the conflict in Kivu since 2012 and raised concerns that the Rwandan-backed M23 rebel campaign could turn into a larger regional war due to the presence of troops from Rwanda and Burundi in the Kivu provinces. Thousands of soldiers had been deployed to assist the Congolese army in South Kivu by Burundi, which has a Hutu-dominated government and previously accused Rwanda of backing a 2015 coup attempt, adding to concern for the potential of a larger regional war.

Government

Burundi operates as a presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. The president serves as both head of state and head of government. There are currently 21 registered political parties in Burundi.[34] On 13 March 1992, Pierre Buyoya established a constitution that allowed for a multi-party political process and formalized competitive participation among multiple parties. In 1998, the constitution was amended to increase the number of National Assembly seats and establish two vice-presidential positions. Following the Arusha Accord, a transitional government was implemented in 2000.

The legislative branch features a bicameral assembly, consisting of the Transitional National Assembly and the Transitional Senate. As of 2004, the Transitional National Assembly comprised 170 members. The Front for Democracy in Burundi held 38% of the seats, UPRONA controlled 10%, and the remaining seats were held by other parties. The constitution stipulates that the National Assembly’s composition must reflect 60% Hutu, 40% Tutsi, and 30% women, with three Batwa members included. Members of the National Assembly are elected by popular vote for five-year terms.

The Transitional Senate consists of 51 members, with three seats reserved for former presidents. Thirty percent of Senate members must be women according to constitutional requirements. Senators are elected by electoral colleges formed from the provincial and communal representatives. Each of Burundi’s eighteen provinces elects one Hutu and one Tutsi senator. Senators serve five-year terms.

Both chambers of the legislative branch jointly elect the president for a five-year term.[100] The president appoints officials to the Council of Ministers, which is part of the executive branch, and can select fourteen senators to serve on this council. Appointments to the Council of Ministers require approval by two-thirds of the legislature. The president also selects two vice-presidents. After the 2015 election, Pierre Nkurunziza became president, with Therence Sinunguruza as first vice-president and Gervais Rufyikiri as second vice-president.

On 20 May 2020, Evariste Ndayishimiye, chosen as Nkurunziza’s successor by CNDD-FDD, won the presidential election with 71.45% of the vote. After Nkurunziza’s death from cardiac arrest on 9 June 2020, Pascal Nyabenda, president of the National Assembly, served as acting leader until Ndayishimiye’s inauguration on 18 June 2020.

The Cour Suprême (Supreme Court) is the highest court in Burundi. Below it are three Courts of Appeals. Each province has a Tribunal of First Instance, along with 123 local tribunals.

Censorship

Burundi’s government has faced criticism for arresting journalist Jean-Claude Kavumbagu over his reporting. Amnesty International designated him a prisoner of conscience and called for his immediate release.

Human rights

In April 2009, Burundi criminalised homosexuality, penalising consensual same-sex relations with imprisonment or fines; Amnesty International condemned this as violating human rights obligations and privacy rights. On 27 October 2017, Burundi became the first country to withdraw from the International Criminal Court after being accused of serious rights violations by the UN; the ICC stated it would still prosecute crimes committed during Burundi’s membership.

Administrative divisions

Burundi’s provinces and communes were established on December 25, 1959, under a Belgian colonial decree, replacing the previous system of chieftains. In 2000, the province containing Bujumbura was divided into Bujumbura Rural and Bujumbura Mairie. In 2015, Rumonge province was formed from parts of Bujumbura Rural and Bururi. Between 2015 and 2025, Burundi consisted of eighteen provinces, 119 communes, and 2,638 collines (hills).

In July 2022, the government announced a reorganization of Burundi’s territorial subdivisions, reducing the number of provinces from eighteen to five and communes from 119 to 42. The new arrangement was approved by both the National Assembly and Senate, coming into effect with the parliamentary elections in July 2025. Burundi is now organized into five provinces: Buhumuza, Bujumbura, Burunga, Butanyerera, and Gitega. These provinces are subdivided into 42 communes, zones, and 3,044 collines and quartiers.

Geography

Burundi, one of the smallest nations in Africa, is a landlocked country characterized by an equatorial climate. Situated within the Albertine Rift—the western arm of the East African Rift—Burundi occupies a central position on a rolling plateau in Africa. It shares borders with Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the east and southeast, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. Burundi encompasses several ecological regions, including the Albertine Rift montane forests, Central Zambezian miombo woodlands, and the Victoria Basin forest-savanna mosaic.

The average elevation of Burundi’s central plateau is 1,707 meters (5,600 feet), with the lowest elevations found along its borders. Mount Heha, the highest point in the country at 2,685 meters (8,810 feet), is located southeast of Bujumbura, the nation’s largest city and economic hub. The source of the Nile River is situated in Bururi province, and it connects Lake Victoria to its headwaters via the Ruvyironza River. Lake Victoria serves as a significant water source and links to the Kagera River. Lake Tanganyika, another major body of water, extends across much of southwestern Burundi.

As of 2020, approximately 11% of Burundi’s total land area, or 279,640 hectares, was covered by forest, up from 276,480 hectares in 1990. Of this, naturally regenerating forests made up 166,670 hectares, while planted forests accounted for 112,970 hectares. About 23% of the naturally regenerating forests were classified as primary forest, consisting of native species with minimal human disturbance, and roughly 41% of total forested land lies within protected areas. In 2015, all forest land was reported to be publicly owned.

Burundi contains two national parks: Kibira National Park in the northwest—a region of rainforest adjacent to Nyungwe Forest National Park in Rwanda—and Ruvubu National Park in the northeast, which follows the course of the Rurubu (Ruvubu or Ruvuvu) River. Both parks were established in 1982 with the objective of conserving wildlife populations.

Economy

Burundi is a landlocked nation with limited natural resources and an underdeveloped manufacturing sector. The economy is primarily agricultural, contributing 50% to the gross domestic product (GDP) as of 2017, and providing employment for over 90% of the population. Subsistence agriculture comprises 90% of all agricultural activity. Key exports include coffee and tea, which together account for 90% of the country’s foreign exchange earnings, although overall export volumes represent a modest proportion of GDP. Other significant agricultural outputs are cotton, tea, maize, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, manioc (tapioca), beef, milk, and hides. Despite the reliance on subsistence farming, many citizens lack sufficient resources for self-sustenance, driven by rapid population growth and the absence of clear land ownership policies; in 2014, average farm size was approximately one acre.

Burundi ranks among the world’s poorest countries due partly to its landlocked location, limited access to education, and widespread incidence of HIV/AIDS. An estimated 80% of the population lives below the poverty line. The country has faced recurrent famines and food shortages, especially during the 20th century. Data from the World Food Programme indicate that 56.8% of children under the age of five suffer from chronic malnutrition. The nation’s capacity to generate export revenue and pay for imports is largely dependent on weather conditions and global prices for coffee and tea.

Most Burundians have experienced declining purchasing power as wage growth fails to keep pace with inflation. Consequently, Burundi remains highly dependent on aid from bilateral and multilateral partners, with foreign assistance constituting 42% of national income—the second highest rate in Sub-Saharan Africa. In 2009, Burundi joined the East African Community to enhance regional trade relations and received $700 million in debt relief. However, government corruption continues to impede the development of a robust private sector due to uncertainties surrounding regulatory frameworks.

Surveys since 2007 indicate that Burundians report extremely low levels of satisfaction with life; according to the World Happiness Report 2018, the country ranked as the least happy globally.

Burundi’s natural resources include uranium, nickel, cobalt, copper, and platinum. Beyond agriculture, its industries are component assembly, public works, food processing, and light consumer goods production. Telecommunications infrastructure is underdeveloped, ranking 147th in the 2014 World Economic Forum’s Network Readiness Index. Most people lack access to financial services; only 2% have bank accounts, while microfinance institutions serve a larger share at 4%. There are 26 licensed MFIs offering savings and credit with limited donor dependence. Burundi is part of the East African Community and may join the planned East African Federation. The economy has declined since the 1990s and lags behind neighbouring countries. In 2024, Burundi ranked 127th in the Global Innovation Index.

Currency

Burundi uses the Burundian franc, nominally divided into 100 centimes, though independent Burundi has not issued centime coins. Monetary policy is managed by the central bank, Bank of the Republic of Burundi.

Transport

Burundi’s transport network is currently limited. According to the 2012 DHL Global Connectedness Index, Burundi was identified as the least globalised among 140 surveyed countries. Bujumbura International Airport is the sole airport with a paved runway; as of May 2017, it was served by Brussels Airlines, Ethiopian Airlines, Kenya Airways, and RwandAir. Kigali offers the most daily flight connections to Bujumbura. The country has a road network, but less than 10% of roads were paved as of 2005, and by 2012, private bus companies operated buses on the international route to Kigali. There are no bus connections to Tanzania or the Democratic Republic of Congo. Bujumbura is connected via passenger and cargo ferry (the MV Mwongozo) to Kigoma in Tanzania. There is a plan to establish a rail link connecting the country to Kigali and further on to Kampala and Kenya.

Demographics

As of October 2021, Burundi had a population of 12.3 million, compared to 2.5 million in 1950. The annual growth rate is 2.5%, and women average 5.10 children—among the world’s highest fertility rates. Many citizens have fled due to civil war; in 2006, the United States admitted about 10,000 Burundian refugees. Only 13% of people live in urban areas. With about 315 people per square kilometre, Burundi is one of Sub-Saharan Africa’s most densely populated countries. The population is roughly 85% Hutu, 15% Tutsi, and less than 1% Twa, with small European and South Asian communities.

Languages

The official languages are Kirundi, French, and English (added in 2014). Nearly all speak Kirundi; under 10% speak French.

Religion

About 80–90% are Christian (mostly Roman Catholic), with Protestants and Anglicans making up 15–25%. Around 5% follow traditional beliefs, and 2–5% are Muslims, mainly Sunnis in urban areas.

Health

Burundi ranks lowest in the Global Hunger Index. Civil unrest has repeatedly affected healthcare progress and access to medicine. Indigenous medicine is used alongside biomedicine, with research supported by local organizations and international aid. As of 2015, 1 in 10 children died before age five from preventable diseases. Life expectancy was 60.1 years, with an infant death rate of 61.9 per 1,000 live births. In 2013, 8% of GDP was spent on health, and malaria and typhoid fever are common illnesses.

Culture

Burundi’s cultural identity is shaped by local traditions and the influences of neighbouring countries; however, its prominence has been impacted by periods of civil unrest. Agriculture is the principal industry, and typical Burundian meals generally include sweet potatoes, corn, rice, and peas. Meat is consumed infrequently, primarily due to its cost.

In social gatherings among close acquaintances, Burundians traditionally share impeke, a locally brewed beer, from a communal container as a symbol of unity.

Prominent individuals from Burundi include footballers Mohamed Tchité, Gaël Bigirimana, Youssouf Ndayishimiye; economics professor Léonce Ndikumana; philanthropist Deogratias Niyizonkiza; writer and model Esther Kamatari; humanitarian activist Marguerite Barankitse; journalist and chief editor Antoine Kaburahe; and singer Jean-Pierre Nimbona (Kidumu), who is based in Nairobi, Kenya.

Crafts play an important role in Burundi’s artistic expression and are sought after by tourists. Basket weaving is especially widespread among local artisans, alongside other crafts such as masks, shields, statues, and pottery.

Drumming holds significant cultural importance. The internationally acclaimed Royal Drummers of Burundi have performed for over forty years and are renowned for their expertise in traditional drumming styles utilizing karyenda, amashako, ibishikiso, and ikiranya drums. Dance frequently accompanies drumming during celebrations and family events, with notable examples including the abatimbo—performed at official ceremonies and rituals—and the energetic abanyagasimbo. Burundi also features unique musical instruments such as the flute, zither, ikembe, indonongo, umuduri, inanga, and inyagara.

The country’s strong oral tradition preserves history through storytelling, poetry, and song; literary genres include Imigani, indirimbo, amazina, and ivyivugo. Basketball, track and field, and martial arts are popular sports, with five major judo clubs including Club Judo de l’Entente Sportive. Association football and mancala games are widely enjoyed. Christian holidays, especially Christmas, are celebrated, as is Burundian Independence Day on 1 July. In 2005, Eid al-Fitr was also made a public holiday.

Education

In 2012, the adult literacy rate in Burundi was estimated at 74.71% for individuals aged 15 to 24, while the youth literacy rate was reported at 92.58%. Compared to other countries in the region, Burundi’s literacy rate is higher, being approximately 10% below the global average. Ten percent of boys in Burundi attend secondary education.

Burundi has one public university, the University of Burundi. The country also hosts museums, including the Burundi Geological Museum in Bujumbura, and both the Burundi National Museum and the Burundi Museum of Life in Gitega.

In 2010, an elementary school was established in the village of Rwoga, funded by students from Westwood High School, Quebec, Canada.

As of 2022, Burundi allocated the equivalent of 5% of its GDP to education.

Science and technology

Burundi’s Strategic Plan for Science, Technology, Research and Innovation (2013) identifies priority areas such as food technology, medical sciences, energy, mining and transportation, water, desertification, environmental biotechnology and indigenous knowledge, materials science, engineering and industry, ICTs, space sciences, mathematical sciences, and social and human sciences.

In material sciences, Burundi’s scientific publication intensity increased from 0.6 to 1.2 articles per million inhabitants between 2012 and 2019, ranking within the top 15 in sub-Saharan Africa for this field.

Medical sciences represent the main research focus: medical researchers constituted 4% of all scientists in 2018 and contributed to 41% of publications between 2011 and 2019.

The Strategic Plan emphasizes developing institutional frameworks and infrastructure, enhancing regional and international cooperation, and integrating science into society. In October 2014, the EAC Secretariat designated the National Institute of Public Health as a centre of excellence. Data on output in nutritional sciences, the institute’s specialization, are unavailable; however, from 2011 to 2019, Burundian scientists published seven articles each on HIV and tropical communicable diseases, and five on tuberculosis, all related to the Sustainable Development Goals.

The Strategic Plan also addresses researcher training. Researcher density grew from 40 to 55 per million inhabitants between 2011 and 2018. Funding per researcher increased from PPP$14,310 (2005 constant values) to PPP$22,480, concurrent with an increase in domestic research investment from 0.11% to 0.21% of GDP since 2012.

Burundi’s scientific publication output has nearly tripled since 2011, though growth has slowed since the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015. Currently, there are six scientific publications per million inhabitants, among the lowest rates in Central and East Africa. From 2017 to 2019, approximately 97.5% of publications included foreign co-authors, with Ugandan collaborators among the top five partners.